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The Citadel of Qaitbay: Alexandria’s Guardian of the Mediterranean

The Citadel of Qaitbay stands as a 15th-century masterpiece of Mamluk military architecture, occupying the exact site of the legendary Pharos Lighthouse on Alexandria's Mediterranean coast. Built by Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaitbay between 1477 and 1479 AD, the fortress serves as a physical bridge between the ancient and medieval worlds by incorporating massive granite blocks from the ruined Lighthouse into its own foundations. The structure features a unique concentric defense system, a three-story square keep, and one of the oldest mosques in the city, all designed to shield Egypt from naval invasions. Beyond its golden limestone ramparts, the surrounding seabed remains a vast underwater archaeological field where colossal statues and ancient debris still rest, cementing the Citadel's status as the eternal sentinel of the "Pearl of the Mediterranean."

EFT Team
March 9, 2020
Updated: February 3, 2026

Citadel of Qaitbay: Guardian of the Mediterranean

The Citadel of Qaitbay is more than a military fortress. It is a 15th-century engineering masterpiece that stands on the most famous archaeological site in Alexandria. Built on the eastern tip of Pharos Island, it guards the entrance to the city’s Eastern Harbor. This location has served as the strategic gateway to Egypt for over two thousand years.

Today, the Citadel represents a bridge between the ancient and medieval worlds. It occupies the exact footprint of the Pharos Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaitbay built this limestone shield to protect the Mamluk Sultanate from European naval threats and the rising Ottoman Empire. As you walk its ramparts in 2026, you see a blend of Roman granite, Greek history, and Islamic military genius. It remains the ultimate symbol of Alexandria’s resilience against time and the sea.

The Ancient Foundation: The Pharos Lighthouse Legacy

You cannot understand the Citadel without looking at the ground beneath it. Sultan Qaitbay did not choose this site by accident. He chose it because the ruins of the Pharos Lighthouse provided a ready-made foundation and a massive supply of building materials.

Citadel of Qaitbay: The Colossus of the Coast

The original lighthouse was a marvel of the Hellenistic age. Completed around 280 BCE during the reign of Ptolemy II, it stood over 100 meters tall. It functioned in three distinct stages: a square base, an octagonal middle section, and a circular top. A massive bronze mirror reflected sunlight by day, and a great fire burned by night to guide ships from as far as 50 kilometers away.

Citadel of Qaitbay: The Chronology of Destruction

Nature, not war, brought the lighthouse down. Alexandria sits near a major fault line, and the Pharos suffered through centuries of seismic activity.

The 956 AD Earthquake: This tremor caused the first major structural cracks in the upper lantern.
The 1303 AD Earthquake: This violent event collapsed the octagonal middle section. The traveler Ibn Battuta visited the site shortly after and noted that the entrance was already inaccessible.
The 1323 AD Earthquake: This final blow reduced the once-mighty tower to a heap of rubble. For over a century, the site sat as a graveyard of massive stone blocks.

Recycled History

When Sultan Qaitbay began construction in 1477 AD, his engineers treated the ruins as a stone quarry.

Foundation Strength: They used the original granite blocks of the lighthouse to stabilize the sea-facing walls. These stones had already survived the Mediterranean’s salt and waves for 1,700 years.
The Red Granite Pillars: If you look at the entrance to the Citadel’s mosque today, you will see columns of red Aswan granite. These are not Mamluk. They are original Roman or Greek artifacts that the Sultan’s workers salvaged from the debris.
The Underwater Field: Because many blocks were too heavy to move, they remain on the seafloor. Consequently, the Citadel sits at the center of a 2.25-hectare underwater archaeological site.

The Rise of the Mamluk Builder: Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaitbay

To appreciate the fort, you must understand the man who built it. Sultan Al-Ashraf Qaitbay was a ruler of the Burji Mamluk Dynasty. Like many sultans of his time, he began his life as a slave-soldier. He rose through the ranks because of his military skill and sharp mind. By the time he took the throne in 1468 AD, he inherited a kingdom facing immense pressure.

Citadel of Qaitbay: The Architecture of Survival

Qaitbay reigned for nearly 29 years, which was a long time for a Mamluk sultan. He spent much of his wealth on a massive building program.

A Strategic Builder: He did not just build for beauty. He built to survive. He fortified the coastlines of Egypt to stop the expanding Ottoman Empire and the Crusader fleets from the north.
The Master of Stone: Qaitbay’s style became famous for its strength and elegance. He preferred using high-quality limestone and intricate geometric carvings. You can see his touch not only in Alexandria but also in the mosques and schools of Cairo and Jerusalem.

The Geopolitical Crisis

In the 15th century, the world was changing. The Ottomans had conquered Constantinople in 1453. They were moving south toward Egypt. Qaitbay knew that if Alexandria fell, the road to Cairo would be wide open. Consequently, he poured the state’s resources into the Citadel. He completed the entire project in just two years (1477–1479 AD). This speed shows how desperate the Mamluks were to secure their northern border.

Military Architecture: A Technical Deep Dive

The Citadel of Qaitbay is a masterpiece of Mamluk military science. It is not just a thick wall; it is a complex machine designed for naval combat. Architects used the physics of the era to create a “concentric” defense system.

The Concentric Defense Strategy

The fort features two primary walls that work together.

The Outer Wall: The first line of defense. It surrounds the entire island. It contains defensive towers every few meters. These towers gave soldiers a 360-degree view of the sea.
The Inner Wall: This wall is much thicker and stronger. It protects the central courtyard and the main Keep. If an enemy managed to climb the first wall, they would find themselves trapped in the space between the two walls, where soldiers could fire down on them from above.

The Square Keep: The Ultimate Stronghold

The three-story Keep is the heart of the Citadel. It follows a square plan, which was more stable against the vibrations of heavy cannon fire than a circular design.

The Ground Floor: It housed the garrison’s mosque and the main cistern. Fresh water was the most important resource during a siege.
The Second Floor: This was the tactical level. It contained the barracks and the storage for gunpowder and grain. It also features machicolations—floor openings where soldiers could drop stones or boiling oil on invaders below.
The Third Floor: This level served as the command center. From the roof, the “Sultan’s lookout” provided a clear view of any ship approaching the harbor from kilometers away.

The Physics of Mamluk Masonry

The fort had to survive two enemies: invaders and the Mediterranean Sea.

Salt-Resistant Stone: Builders used a specific type of local limestone that hardened when exposed to salt spray.
Lead and Iron Joints: In the most critical corners, engineers used lead and iron to bind the stones together. This allowed the walls to “flex” slightly during an earthquake or a cannon strike without cracking.
The Ventilation Slits: If you look at the walls, you will see narrow, angled slits. These were designed to let air flow into the gunpowder rooms to prevent dampness while remaining too small for an enemy arrow to pass through.

Religious Life Within the Walls: The Citadel Mosque

Even in a place of war, the Mamluks prioritized faith. The ground floor of the Keep houses a mosque that serves as one of the oldest and most unique Islamic structures in Alexandria. It is a “functional” mosque, built for soldiers rather than for show.

Citadel of Qaitbay: Architecture of Devotion

The mosque does not have the soaring minarets or massive domes you see in Cairo. Instead, it follows a cruciform (four-iwan) plan.

The Four Iwans: The mosque consists of four vaulted halls that face a central open courtyard. In Mamluk schools, these halls represented the four schools of Islamic law. Here, they provided space for the garrison to gather.
Aesthetic Minimalism: You will not find gold or colorful mosaics here. The walls are plain limestone. This simplicity kept the soldiers focused on their duty. However, the stone carving around the Mihrab (the niche facing Mecca) is exquisite, showing that even in a fortress, art had a place.
The Minaret: The fort did have a small minaret on its roof, but it served two purposes. It called the soldiers to prayer, but it also functioned as a signal tower for the navy.

The Submerged Museum: Archaeology Beneath the Waves

The most incredible part of Qaitbay is what you cannot see from the land. The Mediterranean Sea has reclaimed a huge portion of Alexandria’s history. The seabed surrounding the Citadel is one of the richest underwater archaeological sites in the world.

The 1994 Discovery

In the mid-1990s, a team of French and Egyptian archaeologists began diving at the base of the fort. They discovered that the debris field of the Pharos Lighthouse was still there, lying under just 6 to 8 meters of water.

The Colossi: Divers found pieces of massive statues of Ptolemy II and his queen, Arsinoe II. These statues once stood at the entrance of the original lighthouse.
The 12-Ton Lintels: They discovered the massive granite doorways of the lighthouse. The sheer size of these stones explains why the lighthouse was considered a world wonder.
Sphinxes and Obelisks: The team mapped over 3,000 blocks. Interestingly, many of these are “Pharaonic” artifacts that the Greeks moved from Heliopolis to Alexandria to decorate the city.

The Future of Underwater Tourism

As of 2026, the Egyptian government is working on a plan to make these ruins accessible without a diving suit.

Glass-Bottom Boats: Tours now allow visitors to see the massive granite pillars through the clear harbor water.
The Underwater Tunnel Project: There are active discussions to build a transparent tunnel that would lead from the Citadel’s base into the heart of the debris field. This would create the world’s first “submerged history park.”

Naval Warfare: The Fortress in Action

The Citadel of Qaitbay did not just stand pretty on the coast; it saw real action. Its walls bear the scars of centuries of Mediterranean conflict.

The 1798 French Invasion

When Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Egypt, the Citadel was his first target. The French fleet was much more modern than the Mamluk defenses. Napoleon recognized that if he held Qaitbay, he held the keys to Egypt. The fort suffered significant damage during the French occupation, as they repurposed it for their own artillery.

The 1882 British Bombardment

The darkest day for the Citadel came during the Anglo-Egyptian War. The British Royal Navy launched a massive bombardment on Alexandria.

The Broken Walls: Modern explosive shells were too powerful for the medieval limestone. The British guns shattered the northern ramparts and damaged the Keep.
Abandonment: After the bombardment, the British occupied the fort. For decades, it fell into ruin and was used primarily as a warehouse. It wasn’t until the early 20th century that restoration began, saving the structure from complete collapse.

Restoration and Modernity: From Ruins to Landmark

The Citadel we see today is a result of incredible dedication. By the late 19th century, the fort was a crumbling shell. It had survived centuries of salt air, earthquakes, and British cannons, but it was nearly lost to time.

Citadel of Qaitbay: The Saving of the Stone

In 1904, le Comité de Conservation des Monuments de l’Art Arabe a intervenu. This group of scholars and architects began the first scientific restoration.

The Structural Rebuild: They used original Mamluk techniques to repair the broken ramparts. They didn’t just patch the walls; they studied 15th-century masonry to ensure the new stones matched the old ones in density and color.
King Farouk’s Rest House: During the mid-20th century, the fort took on a more glamorous role. King Farouk, the last King of Egypt, turned a portion of the Keep into a royal summer rest house. He loved the cool sea breezes and the privacy of the thick walls.
2026 Conservation Standards: Today, the Ministry of Antiquities uses modern technology to protect the limestone. They use laser cleaning to remove salt crusts without damaging the stone. They also use sensors to monitor how the rising sea levels might affect the foundations.

The Cultural Impact: Qaitbay in the Modern Mind

The Citadel is not just a building; it is a symbol of Alexandria.

The Logo of the City: You will see the silhouette of the fort on local government logos, sports team jerseys, and even on the 25-piaster coin. It represents the strength of the city.
Literary Fame: The fort appears in many famous novels, including E.M. Forster’s writings and the “Alexandria Quartet” by Lawrence Durrell. It often represents the “edge” of the world where history meets the sea.

Visitor Guide: Expert Strategies for the Citadel

To make your visit to the Eastern Harbor truly authoritative, follow these 2026 logistical tips.

Getting There and Timing

The Route: Take a taxi or an Uber to the end of the Corniche in the Anfoushi district. The drive itself is beautiful, as you follow the curve of the Mediterranean.
The Golden Hour: The best time to visit is exactly 90 minutes before sunset. The light hits the limestone and turns it a deep honey-gold. This is also when the sea breeze is strongest.

Citadel of Qaitbay: Photography and Exploration

The Northern Rampart: This is the highest point accessible to the public. It offers a 360-degree view. To the north, you see the open Mediterranean. To the south, you see the modern Alexandria skyline and the “Bibliotheca Alexandrina.”
The Hidden Details: Look for the “graffiti” carved into the walls by soldiers over the last 500 years. You can find inscriptions in Arabic, French, and English, marking the different armies that occupied the site.
Footwear: The stone floors are 500 years old. They are polished smooth by millions of feet and can be very slippery. Wear shoes with a good grip.

Citadel of Qaitbay (FAQs)

Can I see the remains of the Pharos Lighthouse today? Yes and no. You cannot see the lighthouse standing, but you are standing on it. The large, reddish-black stones at the base of the fort and the entrance are the original granite blocks of the Pharos.

Is it safe to visit during high winds? The fort remains open, but the sea-facing ramparts can get very windy. Authorities sometimes close the highest towers if the Mediterranean is too rough.

Are there guided tours available? Yes, there are official guides at the gate. However, for a 3,000-word authoritative experience, it is better to print this guide and walk the site at your own pace to find the hidden architectural details.

Citadel of Qaitbay: The Eternal Watchman

The Citadel of Qaitbay is a monument to the cycle of history. It proves that nothing is ever truly lost. The Pharos Lighthouse fell, but its stones became a fortress. The Mamluk Sultanate fell, but its architecture became a national icon. When you stand on the walls of Qaitbay, you are part of a 2,000-year-old story of human ambition, defense, and the enduring power of the Egyptian spirit.

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