The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt
The Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt was a period of great transformation. It lasted from approximately 2040 to 1782 BCE. This era produced some of Egypt’s greatest works of literature, sculpture, and art. These works were unique and helped shape Egyptian culture.
Literature evolved significantly during this time. Old Kingdom texts were mostly inscriptions and religious works. In contrast, Middle Kingdom literature explored the lives of ordinary people and the human experience. Famous examples include The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor and The Tale of Sinuhe. Other works, such as The Lay of the Harper, even questioned the existence of an afterlife.
Artistic Evolution
The Middle Kingdom brought significant changes to Egyptian art, literature, and architecture. Unlike earlier periods, this era explored the human experience and daily life. This shift shows a more introspective and realistic society.
Artistic Achievements
Writers created new works that explored the lives of ordinary people and existential questions. Famous examples include The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor and The Tale of Sinuhe.
Art and sculpture also became more realistic. Tomb paintings showed scenes of daily life to guide the soul in the afterlife. Sculptors created lifelike statues, even depicting pharaohs with wrinkles and signs of age.
Architectural Innovations
Architects introduced new ideas in temple building. They designed structures that blended with the surrounding landscape, following the model of Mentuhotep II’s mortuary complex. The kings of the 12th Dynasty supported these changes, making the Middle Kingdom a golden age for Egyptian culture.
Defining the Middle Kingdom
The term “Middle Kingdom” is a modern invention, created by 19th-century Egyptologists to organize ancient Egypt’s long history. Unlike the Old and New Kingdoms, which are defined by singular achievements like pyramid building or empire expansion, the Middle Kingdom lacks one dominant feature. Instead, historians characterize it as a period of significant transformation. The term is not an ancient name but a scholarly tool that reflects the complex and ever-changing nature of Egyptian civilization.
The Decline of the Old Kingdom
The monumental pyramid-building projects of the Old Kingdom ultimately led to its decline. Starting with King Sneferu, pharaohs diverted immense resources and manpower to construct these elaborate complexes. This focus on grandiose projects strained the royal treasury and depleted the kingdom’s resources, as evidenced by the progressively smaller pyramids built by his successors. This economic strain and the neglect of other areas weakened the central government, reducing the pharaoh’s authority and destabilizing the unified realm.
The First Intermediate Period
The First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BCE) was a time of political fragmentation and social change. The strong central government collapsed, and local governors, or nomarchs, gained control over their regions. This decentralization led to the rise of two rival kingdoms, in Herakleopolis and Thebes, and allowed regional administrators to accumulate wealth and influence. This era also brought a new level of social mobility, as individuals had more opportunities to rise in status. These political and social shifts laid the groundwork for the more diverse and complex cultural landscape of the Middle Kingdom, earning it the title of the “Classical Age” of Egyptian art and literature.
Achievements of the Middle Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom is often considered a “golden era” due to numerous advancements and achievements, largely initiated by Mentuhotep II. Like Menes, Mentuhotep II reunited Egypt, ending the conflict between Thebes and Herakleopolis. This reunification led to a period of great stability and artistic gains. The dynasty also expanded Egypt’s boundaries and established new mining operations through military prowess.
The Rise of Thebes and Unification
The process of unification began with Intef I and continued with his successors. Wahankh Intef II (c. 2112–2063 BCE) took the city of Abydos and claimed the title “King of Upper and Lower Egypt,” a crucial step toward unification. Mentuhotep II built on these successes, defeating Herakleopolis and rewarding loyal districts, which solidified the rule of the Theban dynasty and ushered in the Middle Kingdom. Thebes also became a major artistic center.
Cultural and Artistic Advancements
The Middle Kingdom saw significant evolution in art, literature, and architecture. The Egyptian language achieved a new level of refinement, serving as a model for future prose. In sculpture, artists created more realistic depictions of pharaohs, showing them with signs of age and experience rather than in an idealized form. Temple architecture also evolved, with structures designed to integrate with the natural landscape, following the model of Mentuhotep II’s vast mortuary complex at Deir el-Bahri.
The Rise of Religious Cults
During the Middle Kingdom, religious beliefs significantly shaped society. People’s fear of instability led to the rise of two major cults. The Cult of Osiris, the god of the dead, became highly popular because it promised eternal life. The city of Abydos, where people believed Osiris’s head was buried, became a major pilgrimage site. At the same time, the veneration of Amun grew, and his priests amassed considerable wealth and power. As a combination of the sun god Ra and the creator god Atum, Amun became an all-powerful deity, and his temple at Karnak was continuously expanded.
Modern Terminology
Modern historians, not the ancient Egyptians themselves, created terms like “Middle Kingdom.” Ancient Egyptians viewed their history as a series of reigns and dynasties. Modern scholars use terms like “kingdoms,” representing periods of strong centralized government, and “intermediate periods,” representing times of disunity, to categorize and better understand Egypt’s extensive history.
Reign of Mentuhotep III
Mentuhotep III (c. 2010–1998 BCE) was an effective pharaoh who built on his predecessor’s legacy. He organized a major expedition to Punt, a region known for luxury items like gold and incense, which boosted Egypt’s wealth and trade relations. He also fortified the northeastern Delta region, securing the country against potential invasions. While not much documentation exists from his reign, his contributions helped ensure a period of prosperity and stability, which his successor, Amenemhat, enjoyed.
Achievements of Senusret I
Senusret I (c. 1971–1926 BCE) enhanced Egypt’s infrastructure by initiating grand building projects, including a temple dedicated to Amun at Karnak. He continued the military reforms started by his father, maintaining a standing army that reduced the influence of local governors and strengthened the central government. His reign was also marked by an efficient bureaucracy that centralized resources while allowing local districts to prosper. By encouraging local officials to document their achievements, he fostered loyalty and cohesion throughout the kingdom.
Characterizing the Middle Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom lacks a single defining feature because it was a period of diverse and subtle transformation, rather than a single, monumental achievement. While the Old Kingdom is defined by its pyramids and the New Kingdom by its military empire, the Middle Kingdom saw multifaceted changes in governance, culture, and economics.
The Execration Texts
The Execration Texts were magical artifacts from the Middle Kingdom used to protect people from their enemies. People typically created these objects, often clay statues, with an enemy’s name inscribed on them. They believed that destroying the object would transfer the destruction to the person named, neutralizing the threat. The widespread use of these texts reveals a society with an underlying fear and insecurity, even during times of prosperity. The texts also highlight the deep reliance on magic and religion to maintain order and show the complex social hierarchies of the time.
Later Egyptian Views
Later Egyptian histories viewed the Middle Kingdom as a “golden age” of stability and prosperity, especially the 12th Dynasty. They often contrasted this era with the chaos of the preceding and following periods, which were characterized by lawlessness and disunity. Later writers praised the Middle Kingdom for its strong central government, cultural flourishing, and economic abundance. The achievements and innovations of this period left a lasting legacy that influenced Egyptian culture for centuries, and future generations regarded it as a model of excellence.
Nomarchs and Centralized Power
The role of nomarchs, or regional governors, changed significantly during the First Intermediate Period. They gained considerable autonomy from the central government, acting as regional kings who enforced laws and collected taxes independently. This newfound power was reflected in regional art and architecture.
However, the establishment of a standing army in the Middle Kingdom transformed the power structure by centralizing military control under the pharaoh. This move reduced the nomarchs’ influence and gave the king a permanent, professional force to maintain national security and unity. The standing army also led to economic and administrative reforms and created new opportunities for social mobility for common citizens.
The Start of the Middle Kingdom
The 12th Dynasty began when Amenemhat I moved the capital from Thebes to a new city called Itjawy. Divine signs, like a gazelle giving birth and a rainstorm revealing a well, legitimized his claim to the throne. The Prophecy of Neferty, a Middle Kingdom text, further bolstered his legitimacy. Relocating the capital symbolized a unified Egypt, as the name Itjawy means “Amenemhat is he who takes possession of the Two Lands.” Despite his efforts to unify Egypt, court unrest led to his assassination. However, his son, Senusret I, took over immediately through a system of co-regency, which ensured a seamless and stable transition of power. This practice allowed the kingdom to maintain prosperity and stability, even with the continued local authority of the provincial elites.
Middle Kingdom Dynasties and Rulers
Amenemhat II (1929–1895 BCE) established trade with Nubia and re-established the nomarchs’ rule. Under his successor, Senusret II (1897–1878 BCE), local officials prospered without challenging the central authority, creating a harmonious balance of power. The kings of the 12th Dynasty at Itj-tawi were powerful, but they shared wealth and social standing with provincial elites who maintained local authority. This system provided stability and security for the entire kingdom.
The Start of the Middle Kingdom
Some scholars argue that the Middle Kingdom truly began with the 12th Dynasty due to the transformative reign of Amenemhat I (1991-1962 BCE). His dynasty ruled for approximately 200 years, bringing significant political stability, cultural achievements, and international relations. This period saw a flourishing of art, literature, and architecture, which defined the era. The dynasty’s ability to unify Egypt and engage with neighboring regions is why some historians consider it the true starting point of the Middle Kingdom.
Senusret III: A Warrior-King
Senusret III (1878–1839 BCE) was a powerful warrior-king who led military campaigns into Nubia, solidifying Egypt’s southern borders. He also built numerous forts and temples. His reign was so prosperous that people deified him during his lifetime, a rare honor. He is also considered the model for the legendary Sesostris, a great Egyptian pharaoh described by ancient historians as having conquered vast territories. Art from his time realistically portrayed him with signs of age and weariness, a stark contrast to the eternally youthful depictions of earlier kings.
The End of the Middle Kingdom
The reigns of Amenemhat III (1860–1815 BCE) and Sobekneferu (1807–1802 BCE), Egypt’s earliest documented female pharaoh, marked the end of the Middle Kingdom. Amenemhat III focused on infrastructure, increasing mining operations, and building monuments like the great mortuary temple at Hawara, known as “The Labyrinth.” Sobekneferu continued urban development, but after her reign, the 13th and 14th Dynasties began a period of decline. During this time, foreign settlers known as the Hyksos gained influence.
The Influence of the First Intermediate Period
The First Intermediate Period (2181–2040 BCE) was a time of decentralization where nomarchs gained power. While this period saw a weakening of central authority, it also influenced the Middle Kingdom by fostering greater social mobility and artistic diversity. The art and literature of the Middle Kingdom reflect a variety of regional styles, which earned it the reputation as the “Classical Age” of Egyptian art.
The Second Intermediate Period and Common Misconceptions
The Second Intermediate Period is often mistakenly seen as a time of complete chaos and cultural collapse. While hieroglyphic script saw
a decline, the hieratic script emerged, and art continued to be produced, albeit with some stylistic changes. The rule of the Hyksos was not as chaotic as commonly believed. They respected Egyptian culture and even introduced new technologies and trade practices, contributing to the country’s development.
The 13th Dynasty of ancient Egypt was a period of fragmentation and decline. The Hyksos began establishing a presence in Lower Egypt around 1782 BCE and had secured control by approximately 1720 BCE. This growing foreign influence significantly contributed to the dynasty’s gradual loss of power.
The Historical Record
Historical records for the 13th Dynasty are inconsistent and challenging to interpret. The historian Manetho listed an implausible 60 kings over 453 years. Scholars now believe a more realistic duration was around 153 years. Some kings, like Sobekhotep I, are well-documented on the Turin King List and other inscriptions, but records for his successors become increasingly sparse. Many rulers appear on only one type of source, making it difficult for historians to establish a clear timeline.
Sobekhotep I and 13th Dynasty Policies
Sobekhotep I was a notable pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty. Although he only ruled for about four years, he is one of the best-documented kings of this era. He appears on the Turin King List, and inscriptions and monuments from his reign have been found. The kings of the 13th Dynasty inherited the policies of the 12th Dynasty and attempted to maintain a unified Egypt. However, they lacked the strong leadership of their predecessors and struggled to control emerging political entities like the Hyksos. While they continued to maintain administrative and religious traditions, the momentum and strength of the earlier dynasty had waned.
Factors of Decline
The decline of the 13th Dynasty was a gradual process. The sporadic documentation of later kings and the inconsistencies between sources indicate a breakdown of central authority. The rising power of the Hyksos in Lower Egypt around the early 18th century BCE was a significant sign of the central government’s weakening control. The 13th Dynasty attempted to follow its predecessors’ successful policies, but weaker leadership and growing internal divisions led to its eventual collapse.
